MOTIVATION
Introduction
Motivation plays a vital role in every area of life
and various activities. Our success and achievements are basically dependent on
the motivation. It is, in one form or the other, always present at the root of
all human activities. Motivation is said to be ‘the heart of learning’, ‘golden
road to learning’ and ‘potent factor in learning’, as all learning is motivated
learning.
Meaning
Motivation
is derived from the Latin word ‘movere’ meaning ‘to move’. It is an art of
inculcating and stimulating interest in all activities. It is the process of
arousing action, sustaining activity in progress, regulating and directing
pattern of activity. It is the combined action of desires and incentives,
pushes and pulls. Thus, motivation is some kind of internal force which arouses
or initiates action on the part of the organisms.
Definitions
- Motivation is
the super-highway to learning – Bernard.
- Motivation is
the influence of general pattern of activity initiating and directing the
behaviour of the organism – Johnson.
- The term
Motivation refers to the arousal of tendency to act to produce one or more
effects – J.W. Atkinson.
- Motivation is
the universal characteristics of every organism’s state of affair. It is
constant, never-ending, fluctuating and complex phenomenon – Maslow.
- Motivation is
the central factor in the efficient management of the process of learning.
Some type of motivation must be present in all learning – Kelly.
- Motivation is
the process of arousing sustaining and regulating activity – Good.
- Motivation is
considered with the arousal of the interest in learning which is essential
for learning – Crow & Crow.
- Motivation is
an internal condition initiated by drives, needs or desires and producing
goal directed behaviour – Lefton.
- Motivation
maybe defined more formally as a psychological, internal process initiated
by some need, which leads to the activity that will satisfy that need –
Types
1. Natural or Innate Motives
There
are some motives which are universal among all the human beings. These motives
are also called as Primary motives. These motives ensure the preservation of
life. It is found in all organisms. We are also experience such motives and
drive everyday. Therefore it is described as Natural Motives. These motives are
basically due to the biological and physiological needs such as hunger, thirst,
sex, sleep, rest, blood circulation, heart beat, respiration, metabolism,
appetites, glandular secretions etc.
These
motives are directly linked with the natural instincts, urges and impulses of
the organism. So it is also called Intrinsic Motives.
2. Acquired Motives
Human beings are capable of acquiring new motives
by learning. The interaction of an individual with his environment provides a
constant source of modification of his old motives and acquisition of new ones.
Acquired motives are also known as learned motives which are nothing but the
externalization of drives. They are actually secondary reinforcements. These motives
are due to social, psychological and emotional needs such as affection,
belongingness, security, happiness, prestige and comfort.
Here
the individual learns something not for his own sake but as a means of obtaining
desired goals or getting some external reward. So it is also called Extrinsic
Motives.
MASLOW’S
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Introduction
Maslow’s
hierarchical theory of motivation is also called Need Gratification Theory. It
was put forward by Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, born to a Russian immigrant
couple in New York city
Hierarchy
of Needs
Maslow suggested
that when needs are satisfied at one level, the next higher order of needs
becomes pre-potent. The unsatisfied needs are dominated and organize the
behaviour of the organism.
1. Physiological Needs
It
includes the needs for food, water, air, sleep, activity, sex and sensory
satisfaction. Hungry children manifest apathy, lethargy, inability to pay
attention and perhaps over concern about food to such a degree that response to
classroom stimuli do not occur. Moreover, energy, health / illness,
effectiveness of sensory function etc. also come under physiological
needs.
2. Safety Needs
The
children are dominated by safety seeking behaviour, if their physiological
needs are satisfied. Because of the need for safety, children prefer care
during illness, routines, dependable on parents and an orderly world. They need
the feeling of security that comes from structure, discipline and consistency.
3. Love and Belongingness
When
both physiological and safety needs are satisfied, the need for love, affection
and belongingness will emerge. Maslow pointed out that affection or love
relationship expresses itself in our society mostly between sweet-hearts,
spouses, parents, children and friends. However in our society the need for
belongingness is a necessity to have more diffused love or affection with a
number of others as well.
4. Self-Esteem
All
people possess a stable, confidently based high evaluation of themselves. This
entails self respect and prestige from others. These needs are satisfied by (1)
confidence and independence (2) recognition, attention and appreciation from
others. They involve in many social service activities for getting prestige.
5. Self-Actualization
If all the above needs are fulfilled, then the
individual becomes self-actualized. Self-actualization refers to the desire of
an individual to “become everything that one is capable of becoming”. Maslow
calls persons whose needs (including that for actualization) are satisfied as
basically satisfied people. They are having realistic self-image, good
temperament, good adjustment and good mental health.
Characteristics of Self-Actualized Persons
- They are realistic oriented.
- They accept themselves, other people and the
natural world for what they are.
- They have spontaneous thinking, emotions and
behavior.
- They are problem centered rather than being self-centered.
- They are autonomous and independent in the
face of rejection and popularity.
- Their intimate relationships with a few
specially loved people tend to be profound and deeply emotional rather
than superficial.
- They will be happy, creative, well adjusted,
helpful and willing to accept others.
- They will have a good sense of humour.
- They resist total conventionality of the
culture.
- They are democratic in their attitude towards
others.
Educational Implications
Physiological
Needs
To have proper
intellectual activity in the class room, the teacher must help them first to
meet their physiological needs.
The teacher should
- See whether the chairs, desks and tables are
of proper size to the children.
- Take care to maintain good lighting and
ventilation in the class room.
- Be in the close contact with the children who
have visual and auditory defect to minimize the difficulties.
- See whether the pupils are adequately dressed
to protect themselves from the cold and heat.
- Take care in the toilet practice.
Safety
Needs
- Teacher’s behaviour should be consistent
(reliable) It is helpful, especially to the pupil who tends to be
insecure.
- The more clearly and specifically educational
objectives are stated, the greater is the motivation and the more
efficient is the learning.
- When a test is announced, it should be given
on schedule.
- Grading should not be based on conduct and
attitude at one time if it is based entirely on achievement in other
occasions.
- Discipline must be reasonable and cooperative
rather than arbitrary (chance) and autocratic.
Love
and Belongingness
- Identity is the key factor to motivation. When
pupils feel that they are identified and are part of the group, desirable
and purposeful learning activities may be facilitated.
- Teachers should use group and individual
counseling to encourage pupils to make their classmates feel at home.
- Teachers should assign duties and
responsibilities in such a way that all pupils become functioning members
of the group.
- Teachers should form the group for mutual
attraction and support within the group.
Self-Esteem
Needs
- Schoolwork should not be too easy or too
difficult for the students to complete. Teachers should find something the
pupil can do that makes him feel important.
- Teachers should recognize pupils as worthy
individuals in the group.
- Teachers should recognize that there are
different ways of achieving status. consequently there are different
methods for using status as a motivation.
Self-Actualization
Some pupils work as a matter of compliance to authority, some seek to
satisfy curiosity, others work to prove their superiority and still others work
because the immediate task is seen as a step towards a long range goal. Hence,
varied curricula, provision for choice of activity by individual pupils, plans
for independent study and availability of guidance and counseling workers all
have a place in providing opportunities for self-actualization.
REWARDS & PUNISHMENTS
In teaching or instructing, success is depending
upon the skillful use of rewards and punishment to encourage and guide the
learning process. Though reward and punishment are related to praise and blame,
they are much specific and definite. In any case rewards and punishment should
convince all the recipients both the worth and value.
REWARDS
Rewards may be symbolic and material. Medals, rolls
of honour, seat in the first row and badges are some of the rewards used in a
classroom. Reward is a positive incentive compared to punishment which is a
negative incentive. Rewards give pleasure and joy which come with success and
achievement. It stimulates the individual to keep up his position. Many
teachers believe that when the rewards are bigger, it will have a greater
effect. When rewards are exaggerated, then learning will be subordinate to
rewards. Effective teaching is the biggest reward for the learner.
Advantages:
o Rewards are more effective than punishment.
o It is advantageous to use goals intrinsically
related to the learning task.
o Rewards give pleasure and joy which come with
success and achievement.
Disadvantages:
·
A reward planned
by an adult (parent or teacher) and randomly related to the activity is like a
bribe and may lead to submissiveness and respect to authority rather than to
originality and self-initiated activity.
·
Cheating on
examinations sometimes occurs when desire for the external reward outweighs
regard for the processes by which the reward is achieved.
·
Rewards are often
competitive. One or a few learners are encouraged by the reward, but many will
be frustrated. If there is only one prize and many contestants, the problems of
the losers must be considered. Is the gain to the winner worth disappointment
to the loser?
PUNISHMENTS
1. Punishment is the act or an instance of punishing.
2. Punishment is the condition of being punished.
3. Punishment is penalty imposed for wrongdoing - Simone
Weil.
4. Punishment is rough handling; mistreatment.
Punishment has a long history in any system of
education. The old proverb is that ‘Spare the rod and spoil the child.’ It is a
deliberate attempt to infect pain so that the learner gives up wrong responses
and adopts the desirable mode of behaviour. It is based on fear caused by loss
of status and embarrassment. As far as possible punishment as a motivating
agent should be avoided because it kills initiative, leadership,
resourcefulness and free thinking. Punishment is a method of enforcing
discipline and correcting wrong types of behaviour. In army, punishment is used
as a method of improving qualities of the recruit. Corporal punishment is no
longer in practice now because of the directives from government and objection
from parents. Frequent punishments spoil the relationship between the teacher
and the student. Psychologists and Educationalists are of the view that praise
and rewards are more effective than blame and punishment. Punishment is often
less effective because it temporarily suppresses a response but does not weaken
it. When punishment is effective it accomplishes its purpose by forcing the
individual to select an alternative response that may then be rewarded.
Punishment is often used as a lay term for an
unwanted consequence distributed by an authority to someone who did something
wrong. Punishment is a consequence for a behavior that is designed to decrease
the incidences of that behavior.
Common punishments used by teachers
include warning, withdrawal of privileges such as recess, time-out from a
rewarding environment, or suspension from school.
Advantages:
·
Punishment can
effectively eliminate an undesirable response if alternative responses are
available that are not punished or, better yet, are rewarded. Rats that learned
to take the shorter of two paths to reach food in a goal box will quickly
switch to the longer path if they are shocked in the shorter one. In this case,
temporary suppression produced by punishment provided the opportunity for the
organism to learn a new response. Punishment was an effective means of
redirecting behaviour.
·
Punishment can be
quite effective when all we want is that the organism responds to a signal to
avoid punishment. For example, people learn to seek shade when it is hot as
additional sun may cause uncomfortable sunburn. Avoiding a threatened
punishment can be rewarding.
·
Punishment may be
informative. A child who handles electrical appliances and gets shocked may
learn which connections are safe and hazardous.
Disadvantages:
o The results of punishment, although they may
include altered behaviour, are not as predictable as a result of reward. Reward
says, repeat what you have done, but
punishment says, stop it. Punishment
by itself fails to give you an alternative. As a result, an even more
undesirable response may be substituted for the punished one.
o Punishment under some circumstances tends to fix
the behaviour rather than eliminate it, perhaps as a consequence of the fear
and anxiety induced by the punishment. Punishing a child for wetting the bed,
for example, often increases the frequency of the behaviour.
o The byproducts of punishment may be unfortunate.
Punishment often leads to dislike of the punishing person – whether parent,
teacher or employer and to a dislike of the situation in which the punishment
occurred.
Punishment in Classrooms
In classroom
management, as well as in operant conditioning, punishment is usually described
as "some type of negative consequences for inappropriate behavior”.
Negative consequences can take two forms: positive punishment and negative
punishment. In positive punishment something is added in order to decrease an
unwanted behavior, such as a custody being given for chewing gum in class. In
negative punishment something is removed in order to decrease an unwanted
behavior, such as losing recess time for not finishing homework.
In the kingdom of teaching, the teacher often
becomes the surrogate parent for the students in his/her classroom. As we have
those children for a large part of their waking hours during the day, it is
very important to be able to teach appropriate and inappropriate behaviors that
will allow for what is most favorable for learning. Sometimes, it is necessary
to have consequences for bad conduct that will reduce/extinguish inappropriate
behaviors. These often involve assigning custody, contacting the parent,
sending the student to the principal’s office, and even expulsion / removal. Teachers
should understand the pros and cons about using punishment in the classroom.
LEVELS OF
ASPIRATION
Individuals differ
in choosing their goals in undertaking various activities. They differ in how
well they expect to perform in a given task, or what they expect to achieve in
life, i.e. they differ in their level of aspiration.
An individual’s desire
for distinction in a field of performance is known as his / her Ambition. The
level of distinction, or ‘how much distinction’ the individual wishes to attain
from a particular task determines his goals. The selection of particular goals
for which the individual will strive in a given task is called, goal setting.
This influenced by ambition and level of aspiration.
Level of aspiration is
the level of difficulty of goals which the individual sets for himself. The
term ‘level of aspiration’ was coined by Hoppe in 1930. He directly observed
behaviour following success and failure; i.e. the effect of success and failure
on goal-setting behaviour. The level of aspiration for a particular activity is
determined by past success or failure in the particular activity or a similar
activity. Depending upon whether our aspirations are difficult or easy to
achieve in relation to our abilities and environmental opportunities, we are
said to have or low level of aspiration.
The level of aspiration
is the possible goal (score) an individual sets for himself in his performance.
Actual performance could be better than expected, as expected, or less than
expected. It has been commonly observed in various experiments that successful
performance leads to an increase in level of aspiration and unsuccessful
performance (failure) leads to a reduced level of aspiration.
The individual’s level
of aspiration in a specific kind of activity can be assessed directly ad quite
accurately. For example, a beginner in high jump will not expect to break the
world record of 1.9 meters. So, he will not set such a difficult goal at the
first trial. At the same time he will not be happy or thrilled at setting 1
meter as his goal, since it is not at all a difficult one to attain. Gradually raising the bar and asking the
youth if a given height suits him, one can determine his level of aspiration.
But as he makes a number of attempts at various heights, he alters his
subsequent goals based n the success or failure on each trial. In experiments
with different tasks, Hoppe observed an increase in aspiration level after
repeated success and decrease after failure, which he described as ‘typical
shifts in aspiration level.’ After
success, children showed increase not only in the level of aspiration but in
the speed of selecting the next goal and their eagerness to attempt more
difficult tasks. After failure, the average selection time either remains
approximately the same, or even increases, i.e. children took more time to
select the next goal. The drop in self-estimation following a failure is
expressed not only in the decrease in aspiration level but in considerable
fluctuation or a slow, lingering process of selection of the next goal.
In addition to success
and failure, level of aspiration is also influenced by the intensity of
achievement motivation of the individual, the setting of the task, i.e., the
presence, prestige and behaviour of onlookers, the individual attitude,
motivation, interest, sentiment, etc. towards the task performed, also other
feeling like frustration and insecurity, his ego involvement, self-esteem, etc.
in order to measure the individual’s level of aspiration, a number of
laboratory experiments have been designed, of which Rotter’s and Kurt Lewin’s
techniques are the most prominent.
According to Kurt Lewin,
- Success
increases and failure lowers the level of aspiration.
- Knowledge of
how others have performed on the task also affects goal-setting.
- Individual
differences sometimes related to past history of success or failure in
similar tasks or other activities (like school) may lead to differences in
their level of aspiration.
Aspiration is a will to succeed / a cherished
desire. The standard the individual tries to achieve is known as level of
aspiration. What he hopes to achieve indicates his level of aspiration. The
level of aspiration depends on such factors like intelligence, socio-economic
conditions and expectations of children. Classroom goals should be attainable
and the students should feed that they can achieve the goal. The goal should be
realistic and must be too high or too low. In either case it does not stimulate
towards higher learning but only causes frustration. Goals can serve as sources
of motivation when they are well within the reach of pupil.
McCLELLAND’S ACHIEVEMENT
MOTIVATION
Introduction
The
theory of achievement motivation was developed by McClelland and his associates
in 1951 at the University
of Harvard
According
to him, human beings differ from one another in the strength of achievement. He
defined motive as ‘A reintegration of a change infect by a cue and anticipation
of a further change in affect contingent upon certain actions”.
The
term reintegration means reinstatement of psychological process in the
conscious as a result of stimulation by an environment event. Second is cue
which is the cause of affective arousal in the individual. Thus for motivation
two factors are important i.e. environmental cue and affective arousal in the
individual.
McCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS
In his
acquired-needs theory, which draws on Murray
Achievement
People
with a high need for achievement (N-Ach) seek to excel and thus tend to avoid
both low-risk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk situations
because the easily attained success is not a genuine achievement. In high-risk
projects, achievers see the outcome as one of chance rather than one’s own
effort. High N-Ach individuals prefer work that has a moderate probability of
success, ideally a 50% chance. Achievers need regular feedback in order to
monitor the progress of their achievements. They prefer either to work alone or
with other high achievers.
Affiliation
Those
with a high need for affiliation (N-Affil) need harmonious relationships with
other people and need to feel accepted by other people. They tend to conform to
the norms of their work group. High N-Affil individuals prefer work that
provides significant personal interaction situations.
Power
A
person’s need for power (N-Pow) can be one of two types – personal and
institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this
need is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional power (also
known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others to further the
goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for institutional power
tend to be more effective than those with a high need for personal power.
Concept of Achievement Motivation
The
essence of achievement motivation is that it is not just a desire to achieve
only but implies a striving to achieve a standard of excellence in actions.
McClelland denoted achievement motivation by the symbolic expression N-Ach
(need for achievement).
The
Characteristics of Achievement Motivation
- Do well in
competitive tasks
- Generally
prefer skill exercise to game chance’
- They are fast
and bard learners
- They want to
live up to a high self imposed standard of performance.
- They show
preference for tasks of middle level probability of success
- They see
problems and obstacles as challenges to be met and are determined to tackle
them.
- Derive more
pleasure from success than those who are weak in achievement motive.
- There is
strong desire to excel and beat others or to perform the best.
- They are
relatively resistant to outside social pleasures.
- They are
energetic and generally exhibit a high profile of performance.
Inducing Achievement Motivation –How?
Numbers
of factors like home, school, culture of the society affect the development of
achievement motivation.
- Home plays an
important role in the early life of children in the development of
attitudes and motives. Parental expectation and guidance to the child
develop need for high achievement in life.
- Mother’s
encouragement of independent activity at an adequate age is the most
potent source of the development of N-Ach.
- Deprivation
of child-parent relationship affects emotional development and leads to
cognitive deficiencies.
- The social
philosophy and culture of society have a distinct influence on achievement
motive. A society with greater social motility and migration promotes
achievement motive.
- The school,
its climate and teacher influence the development of achievement motive
among the students.
- Providing
feedback at regular intervals also will promote achievement motivation
because feedback will provide a clear insight into the meaning of goals.
- A person’s
self concept is also an important condition in learning and achievement.
Role of the Teachers
- The teacher
should make clear the important of achievement motive in life by means of
telling the stories of great men and their achievement from all walks of
life.
- Teacher
should provide proper environment inside the class and outside the class.
Teacher’s attitude, enthusiasm will create better environment for
achievement motivation in children.
- Self study
should be emphasized.
- Teacher
should ask the students to keep the record of their progress towards goal.
- Teacher
should make students committed to achieve concrete goals in life related
to the newly developed motive.
- Teacher
should make an effect to develop conduct social climate in the class so
that every individual should feel that he/she belongs to a group.
MOTIVATION
IN CLASSROOM CONTEXT
Students in the class require constant motivation
from the teacher. The process of motivation is highly individualizing because
the class is heterogeneous. There is diversity in the class room. Every student
is unique. The individual differences in the class room climate affect the
process of motivation. The psychologists have developed certain common
techniques which can be used by the teacher in promoting motivation in the
class room. They are as follows:
1. PRAISE AND BLAME
Praise and blame are commonly used motives in the
classroom. An experiment was conducted by Hurlock to study the effect of praise
and blame in children. She found that praise was more effective than blame. But
in small children blame is more effective. Praise can be used in many ways like
nod of the teacher, smile, good look and verbal praise like good and excellent.
The teacher should be cautious in using praise in the class room. Praise or
blame as an incentive depends on the teacher and when and how he uses them with
children.
PRAISE
Praise is the act of making positive
statements about a person, object or idea, either in public or privately.
Praise is normally earned relative to achievement and accomplishment. Praise is
often opposed with criticism. The Criticism means completely negative statements made about
something.
BLAME
It is an accusation that is responsible
for some fall or fault. It is like praise, is closely connected with the
concept of moral responsibility for an action, omission, or a trait of
character. When someone is morally responsible for doing something wrong we say
that his or her action is blameworthy. By contrast, when someone is morally
responsible for doing something right, we may say that his or her action is
praiseworthy. There are of course other senses of praise and blame that are not
ethically relevant. One may praise someone’s good dress sense, and blame the
weather for the crop failure.
Psychology
Praise will increase the self-esteem of
the pupil and confidence if a suitable amount of praise is received. Some
psychological theories hold that a person's life is included largely of
attempts to win praise for their actions.
Using
praise with children
·
Praise should not
be given to children without reason.
·
Praise the
attainment of specified goals, not just participation, of the child.
- Ensure praise being given to the child if deserved / worthy.
- Praise progress is in relation to an individual past progress, not
compared with others.
- Teachers should not praise uninvolved students for not disturbing
the class.
There are some important differences between praise
and blame. Blame will get the greatest attention. Praise seems less problematic
and misplaced blame is felt as deeply unreasonable.
2. FEEDBACK
It
is important for the student to be aware of what they have learned. In simplest
term feedback is ‘Knowledge of the result.’ When students are given feedback,
they know whether their responses are right or wrong, appropriate. One variable
that has been consistently related to achievement is knowledge of the result. Feedback
is a component of reinforcement, a larger psychological construct.
Reinforcement
is the process of increasing the frequency of occurrence of low frequency
behaviour or maintaining the frequency of the occurrence of high-frequency
behaviour. Feedback can be given to answer to questions, completed assignments.
It can be positive or negative. Effective or negative feedback should address
the performance of the students. Your performance is unacceptable. Criticize
the performance but not the performer. Example: ‘This essay is unacceptable’ is
negative feedback; ‘You are a useless student’ is attack on the individual.
o Feedback provided to students must be precise.
o Feedback focus on the performance and not on the
performer.
o Mutual feedback among students can also be
encouraged. This is called as peer group evaluation.
o Some teachers provide short term feedback and some
teachers provide long term feed back. Both of them are important. In linear
programmes formulated by Skinner immediate confirmation of the response is one
of the principles of programming.
o Reinforcer is many sided. Knowledge of the progress
or result an important motivating factor is only one of the aspects of
reinforcement. It is technically known as feedback.
LEADERSHIP
INTRODUCTION
Good leaders are made not born. If
you have the desire and willpower, you can become an effective leader. Good
leaders develop through a never ending process of self-study, education,
training, and experience. Good leaders are continually working and studying to improve
their leadership skills, they are not
resting on their laurels.
DEFINITION
- Leadership is
the art of influencing others.
- Leadership is
the activity of influencing
people to strive willingly for mutual objectives - G.R.Terry.
- Leadership is
the ability to influence a group
toward the achievement of goals - Stephen P. Robbins.
- Leadership is
the process through which one
member of a group (its leader) influences other group members toward
attainment of shared goals - Robert A. Baron.
- Leadership is
a process by which a person
influences others to achieve an objective and directs the organization in
a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent.
LEADERSHIP TRAITS
Leadership is an intangible quality and its
effectiveness can best be judged by the behavior and attitudes of followers.
Even though personal background and personalities differ widely, simply
education, social status etc., are poor indicators of judgments of successful
leaders. However some behavioral characteristics may be common to most
effective leaders. Some of these characteristics are:
1.
Ability to inspire others: this may
be an internal “charisma” which is an inborn trait and may not be a learnable
factor.
2.
Problem solving skills: an
effective leader has developed the patience and ability to look at the problem
from various angles and get down to the cause of the problem and tries to solve
the problem rather than the symptoms of the problem.
3.
Emotional maturity: they are
self-confident, rational and emotionally mature. They do not lose temper
quickly and are open hearted towards differences in opinions and opposing
viewpoints. They are warm and sensitive and not vindictive in nature.
4.
Ability to understand human behavior: he must
understand the needs, desires and behavior of their subordinates and show
respect for avoid ego threatening behavior. He must give credit to subordinates
when the efforts are successful.
5.
Verbal assertiveness: a leader
must be an effective orator and must be confident of his opinions and views. He
must communicate his views honestly and in a straight forward manner without
fear of consequences.
6.
Willingness to take risks: routine
work, no matter how well done never makes a leader. Good leaders always charter
the unknown. They must accept and seek new challenges. However, the risks mist
be calculated ones and the outcomes of actions be reasonably predicted. Should
these risks result in failure, a leader must take full blame and responsibility
and not shift blame on others, even though they may be operative factors. He
must be willing to tolerate frustration and defeat and learn from it.
7.
Dedication to organizational goals: a leader
must demonstrate his dedication and commitment to the organization’s mission,
goals and objectives by hard work and self-sacrifice. He must make sure that
his followers fully understand the organizational objectives and are equally
dedicated and willing to work for these objectives.
8.
Skill in the art of compromise: setting
differences is a vital part of leadership and genuine differences must be
solved by compromise and consensus. This will induce faith in the fairness of
the leader. He must be willing to give in where necessary and must be able to
take criticism and defeat with grace. However he must not compromise for the
sake of compromising for smooth sailing only
and must willing to take a stand on controversial issues and accept the
consequences.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
The
leadership styles can be classified according to the philosophy of the leaders.
What the leader does determines how well he leads. A style of leadership is a
“relatively enduring set of behaviours of the individual, regardless of the
situation”. Some of such styles are discussed below:
Autocratic or
Dictatorial leadership:
Autocratic
leaders keep the decision making authority and control in their own hands and
assume full responsibility for all actions. Also they structure the entire work
situation in their own way and expect the workers to follow their orders and
tolerate no deviation from their orders. The autocrat ranges from tough to
paternalistic depending upon whether his motivational approach is threat and
punishment or rewards. The autocratic leader believes that his leadership is
based upon the authority conferred upon him by some source, such as his
position, knowledge, strength or the power to punish and reward.
Advantages:
o Autocratic
leadership is useful when the subordinates are new on the job and have had no
experience either in the managerial decision making process or performing
without active supervision.
o It can
increase efficiency when appropriate and get quicker results especially in a
crisis or emergency situation, when the decision must be taken immediately.
o The
paternalistic autocrat is useful when the subordinates are not interested in
seeking responsibility or when they feel insecure at the job or when they work
better under clear and detailed directives.
o It is
useful when the chain of command and the division of work is clear and
understood by all.
Disadvantages:
o One way
communication without feedback leads to misunderstanding and communication
breakdown.
o An
autocratic leader makes his own decisions which can be very dangerous in this
age of technological and sociological complexity.
o Since it
inhibits the worker’s freedom it fails to develop his commitment to the
objectives of the organization.
o It is
unsuitable when the workforce is knowledgeable about their jobs and the job
calls for team work and cooperative spirit.
2. Democratic
or Participative leadership:
In
this type of leadership the subordinates are consulted and their feedback is
taken into the decision making process. The leader’s job is primarily of a
moderator even though he makes the final decision and he alone is responsible
for the results. The group members are encouraged to demonstrate initiative and
creativity and take interest in setting plans and policies and have maximum
labour relations, higher morale and greater job satisfaction. This type of
leadership is especially effective when the workforce is experienced and
dedicated and is able to work independently with least directives.
Advantages:
o Active
participation in the management by labour assures rising productivity and
satisfaction.
o Workers
develop a greater sense of self-esteem, due to importance given to their ideas
and their contribution.
o They become
more committed to changes that may be brought about by policy changes since
they themselves participated in bringing about these changes.
o The
leadership induces confidence, cooperation and loyalty among workers.
o It results
in higher employee morale.
Disadvantage:
o The
democratic leadership requires some favourable conditions in that the labour
must be literate, informed and organized. This is not always possible.
o This
approach assumes that all workers are genuinely interested in the organization
and that their individual goals are successfully fused with the organization
goals. This assumption may not always be valid.
o There must
be a total trust on the part of management as well as employees. Some employees
may consider this approach simply an attempt to manipulate them. Accordingly
the employees must be fully receptive to this approach to make it meaningful.
o Some group
members may be uncomfortable with this approach because they may fear an
erosion of their power-base and their control over labour.
o This
approach relies heavily on incentives, motivation, recognition, appreciation,
status and prestige. The labour may be more interested in financial incentives
instead of prestige.
3. Laissez-Faire
or Free reign leadership:
In this type of leadership the leader is just a figurehead and does not
give any direction. He acts principally as a link between the group and the
outside elements and supplies necessary materials and provides information to
group members. He lets the subordinates plan, organize and develop their own
techniques for accomplishing goals within the generalized organizational
policies and objectives. The leader participates very little and instead of
leading and directing he becomes just one of the members. He does not attempt
to intervene or regulate or control and there is complete group or individual
freedom in decision making. This type of leadership is highly effective when
the group members are highly intelligent and are fully aware of their roles and
responsibilities and have the knowledge and skills to accomplish these tasks
without direct supervision.
This
type of leadership is evident in research laboratories where the scientists are
fairly free to conduct their research and make their decisions. Similarly, in a
university or a college, the chairperson does not interfere in the professor’s
teaching methods but only assigns the courses to be taught. From then onwards
the professors are very much their own leaders.
Advantages:
o It creates
an environment of freedom, individuality as well as team spirit.
o It is
highly creative with a free and informal work environment.
o This
approach is very useful where people are highly motivated and achievement
oriented.
Disadvantages:
o It may
result in disorganized activities which may lead to inefficiency and chaos.
o Insecurity
and frustration may develop due to lack of specific decision making authority
and guidance.
o The team
spirit may suffer due to possible presence of some uncooperative members.
o Some
members may put their own interests above the group and team interests.
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