INTELLIGENCE

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. SINGLE FACTOR THEORY

This theory is also called unitary theory or monarchic theory. Ross says that intelligence is inborn and innate. This theory accepted intelligence as a part of body. This is a central point which generates all the mental activities. According to this theory, the intelligence consists of one factor, simply a fund of intellectual competence, which is universal for all the activities of the individual. Freeman, Stern, and Ross supported this view and stated that intelligence controls over all the mental activities.

A man who has vigour can move so much to east as to the west. In a similar way, if one has a fund of intelligence he can utilize it to any area of his life and can be as successful in one area as in other depending upon his fund of intelligence. But in actual life situations, the ideas propagated by this theory do not fit well. We find that the children who are bright in science, despite serious interest and hard work may not be so good in English. This makes us conclude that there is nothing like one single factor in intelligence. Therefore, this theory is rejected.

2. SPEARMAN'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

            Two-factor theory is also called Eclectic Theory. Charles spearman first presented his approach to intelligence in his article published in American Journal of Psychology in 1909. He presented his detailed theory of intelligence in his book “The Nature of Intelligence and the Principles of Cognition” published in 1923. Spearman presented his famous two factor theory of intelligence in work entitled “The two factor of intelligence,” published in two volumes. According to this theory, every different intellectual activity involves two factors. The first is a general factor “g” which is shared with all intellectual activities that governs performance on all cognitive tasks. The second is a specific factor “s” which is shared with none, the individual abilities that would make a person more skilled at one cognitive task than another.

            For example, an individual’s performance in Tamil is partly due to his intelligence and partly due to some kind of specific ability in language (g+s₁). In biology his performance will be due to g+s₂. In drawing, it will be due to g+s₃ and so on. The factor g (in lesser or greater degree) will enter in all specific activities. The total ability or intelligence of such an individual (symbolized as I) can be expressed by the following equation.

            I = g+s₁+s₂+s₃ ….

                        Where,

 I = intelligence

                        g = general factor

                        s₁ = specific ability in Tamil

                        s₂ = specific ability in biology

                        s₃ = specific ability in drawing

            This theory has been criticized on various grounds. The main reasons are:

1.                  Spearman said that there are only two factors expressed in intelligence, but as we have seen above, there are not only two, but several factors (g, s1, s2, s3….).

2.                  According to spearman, each job requires some specific ability. This view was not proper as it implied that there was nothing common in the job except a general factor. Professions such as those of nurse, compounder and doctor could not be put in a group. In fact, the factors s1, s2, s3…. are not mutually exclusive. They overlap and give birth to certain common factors.

MULTIFACTOR THEORIES:

1. Thorndike’s Multifactor Theory:

            It is also called anarchic theory. The main propagator of this theory was E.L. Thorndike. As the name suggests, this theory considers intelligence a combination of numerous separate elements or factors, each one being a minute element of ability. According to this theory, any mental act involves a number of these minute elements operating together. So, there is no such thing as general intelligence (single factor). According to his theory, intelligence is the mean of undetermined, independent, rudimentary elements. Intelligence is composed of many factors. All these factors are independent to each other, e.g. 1. Numerical reasoning, 2. Vocabulary and 3. Classification etc. Thorndike concluded that in every task, few factors play a role and correlation between them may be there. This indicates that some of the factors are common in these tasks. Thus, intelligence is composed of highly particularized and independent faculties.

2. Thurstone’s Group Factor Theory:

            This is also called Thurstone’s multifactor theory. For the factors not common to all of the intellectual abilities, but common to certain activities comprising a group, the term ‘group factor’ was suggested. According to Thurstone, certain mental operations have in common, a primary factor that gives them psychological and functional unity, which differentiates them from other mental operations. These mental operations constitute a group factor. So, there are a number of groups of mental abilities, each of which has its own primary factor. Thurstone isolated seven group factors, each of these is said to be relatively independent of the others. They are:

1. Verbal factor (V): It is concerned with comprehension of verbal relations, ideas and words.
2. Spatial factor (S): It is the ability to visualize space and form mentally.
3. Numerical factor (N): It is the ability to do numerical calculations rapidly and accurately.
4. Memory factor (M): It is the ability to memorize quickly.
5. Work fluency factor (W): It is the ability to express oneself in words at a rapid rate.
6. Perceptual factor (P): It is the ability to perceive or see small details quickly and accurately.
7. Reasoning factor (R): It is the ability to see relationship between cause and effect. It may be inductive or deductive type of reasoning.

The weakness in the group factor theory was that it discarded the concept of common factor.

GUILFORD'S 'STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT' MODEL

Introduction

            J.P. Guilford graduated from the University of Nebraska. In 1938 Guilford became the 3rd President of the Psychometric Society. Guilford held a number of posts at Nebraska and briefly at the University of Southern California. In 1941 he entered the U.S. Army as a Lieutenant Colonel and served as Director of Psychological Research Unit No. 3 at Santa Ana Army Air Base. In 1956 he was published his famous article on intelligence in Psychological Bulletin, under the title ‘The structure of intellect.’

 

Guilford's Structure of Intellect

J.P. Guilford found that both Spearmen’s and Thurston’s model of intelligence are incomplete. In Guilford's Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, intelligence is viewed as comprising operations, contents and products. There are 4 kinds of contents (figural, symbolic, semantic, behavioral), 5 kinds of operations (cognition, memory, divergent production, convergent production, evaluation), and 6 kinds of products (units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications). Since each of these dimensions is unique and independent, there are theoretically 120 (4×5×6=120) different components of intelligence.

 

CONTENT

            SI includes four broad areas of information to which the human intellect applies the five operations:

1. Figural – It is a concrete material which has been perceived through the senses e.g. colour, loudness, shape and texture. Information perceived through seeing and hearing.
2. Symbolic – It is composed numbers, letters, symbols, designs. Information perceived as symbols or signs that have no meaning by themselves e.g., Arabic numerals or the letters of an alphabet.
3. Semantic – It is in the form of clear cut meaning of words, ideas for that no examples are needed. Information perceived in words or sentences, whether oral, written, or silently in one's mind.
4. Behavioural – It is the actions and expressions of people which enable one to understand human communication. Information perceived as acts of an individual or individuals.

OPERATIONS

            SI includes five operations, the act of thinking which incorporates the following factors:

1. Cognition - The ability to understand, comprehend, discover and become aware of information.
2. Memory - The ability to encode and retain / recall information.
3. Divergent production - The ability to think different directions and searching novel, multiple solutions to a single problem.  It associates with creativity.
4. Convergent production - The ability to reason a single best solution to a problem. It relates with problem-solving.
5. Evaluation - The ability to decide or judge whether or not information is positive, good, accurate, consistent or valid etc.

PRODUCTS

            As the name suggests, this dimension contains results of applying particular operations to specific contents. The SI model includes six products, in increasing complexity:

1. Units – It refers to grasping sensory perception into their uniqueness. For e.g. a single number, letter or word.
2. Classes – It is also called as categories. It is used in classifying ideas or set of units sharing common attributes. E.g. men + women = people.
3. Relations – It means the ability to understand the relationship between or among the things / concepts.
4. Systems – It means the ability to group ideas or problems into space or the ability to structure problem for solution.
5. Transformation – It refers to the ability to give suggestions for transformation, or the ability to produce / change / convert the future shape of a certain object situation under certain circumstances.
6. Implication – It refers to the ability to understand / predict / infer the implied meanings.

Hence, according to J.P. Guilford there are 4 x 5 x 6 = 120 intellectual abilities or factors. Each ability stands for a particular operation in a particular content area and results in a specific product.

SI MODEL

        

 

                                                                                              

                                                                     Cognition

                                                                                            Memory

                                                                                           

                                                                                            Divergent Thinking                OPERATIONS                          

                                                                                                                                                               

                                                                                            Convergent Thinking

                                                                                            Evaluation

                                                                                            Figural

                                                                                            Symbolic                                  

                                                                                            Semantic                                   CONTENTS

                                                                                            Behavioural

    Units

       Classes

           Relations

                                                                                                                          PRODUCTS

         Systems

                        Transformations

                 Implications

Application:

SI theory is intended to be a general theory of human intelligence. Its major application has been in personnel selection and placement.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

INTRODUCTION

Howard Gardner was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania in 1943. Gardner was a professor of cognition and education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. He also holds and adjusts faculty post in psychology at Harvard and in neurology at Boston University School of Medicine. He is best known for his work in the area of Multiple Intelligence, which has been a career-long pursuit to understand and describe the construct of intelligence. Gardner proposed a new theory and definition of intelligence in his book (1983) entitled “Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences”. The basic question he sought to answer was: Is intelligence a single thing or various independent intellectual faculties?

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY

According to Howard Gardner (1983) “intelligence is the ability to solve problems or to create products that are valued within one or more cultural settings”. Gardner believes that there is no general intelligence rather, multiple, distinct intelligences. He claims that all human beings have multiple intelligences. These multiple intelligences can be nurtured and strengthened or ignored and weakened. He believes each individual has the following nine intelligences.

1. Verbal – Linguistic intelligence

It involves the ability to use words effectively, whether orally or in writing. This intelligence includes the ability to manipulate the syntax or structure of language, the phonology or sounds of language, the semantics or meaning of language, and the practical use of language. Some of these uses included rhetoric, mnemonics, explanation and meta-language. Example: Authors, speakers, lecturers, journalists, etc.

2. Logical - Mathematical Intelligence

This is the capacity to use numbers effectively and to reason well. This intelligence includes sensitivity to logical pattern and relationships, statements and propositions, functions and other related abstractions. The kinds of processes used in logical-mathematical intelligence include categorization, classification, inference, generalization, calculation and hypothesis testing. Example: scientist, accountant, engineers, auditor, etc.

3. Visual - Spatial Intelligence

It is the ability to perceive visuals and space accurately and to perform transformations upon those perceptions. This intelligence involves sensitivity to colour, line, shape, form, space and the relationships that exist between these elements. It includes the capacity to visualize, to graphically represent visual or spatial ideas and to orient oneself appropriately in a special matrix. Example: Architects, artist, driver, sailors, etc.

4. Bodily – Kinesthetic Intelligence

It is the capability in using one’s whole body to express ideas and feelings and facility in using one’s hands to produce or transform things.  This intelligence includes specific physical skills such as co-ordination, balance, dexterity, strength, flexibility and speed. Example: Surgeons, craft people, sculptor, athletes, dancer, etc.

5. Musical – Rhythmic Intelligence

This is the ability to perceive, discriminate, transform, and express musical forms. This intelligence includes sensitivity to the rhythm, pitch, melody and tone of a musical piece. One can have a figural or top-down understanding of music, a formal or bottom-up understanding or both. Example: Composers, musicians, sensitive listeners, etc.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence

Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to perceive and make distinctions in the moods, intention, motivations and feelings of other people. This can include sensitivity to facial expressions, voice and gestures; the capacity of discriminating among many kinds of interpersonal cues; and the ability to respond effectively to those cues in some pragmatic way. It allows people to work effectively with other. Example: Educators, salespeople, counselors, etc.

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence

It is the self-knowledge and the ability to act adaptively in the basis of that knowledge. This intelligence includes having an accurate picture of oneself, awareness of inner moods, intentions, motivations, temperaments, and desires; and the capacity for self-discipline, self-understanding and self-esteem. In Gardner’s view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives. Example: Psychologist, theologians, etc.

8. Naturalistic Intelligence

Naturalistic intelligence is an intelligence that has been identified only recently. Naturalistic intelligence or the nature lover is a person who has the ability to identify and classify pattern in nature. Naturalistic intelligence deals with sensing patterns and making connections to elements in nature. Example: Ecologists, farmers, botanists, etc.

9.      Existentialistic intelligence

Existential intelligence can be defined as the ability to be sensitive, or have the capacity for, conceptualizing or tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why are we born, why do we die, what is consciousness, or how did we get here. Example: Saints, Priests, Sadhus, etc. 

CHARACTERISTICS

• All human beings have all nine intelligences in varying amounts.
• Each person possesses all intelligences.
• Most people can develop each intelligence to an adequate level of competency
• These intelligences are located in different areas of the brain and can either work independently or together in a complex way.
• There are many ways to be intelligent within each category.
• These intelligences may define the human species.

 

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS:

• Session Design: This might involve team teaching, using several intelligences in the teaching of lessons, or asking student opinions about the best way to teach and learn certain topics.
• Interdisciplinary Subjects: interdisciplinary subjects can be included at and above secondary school level.
• Student projects:  Students can learn to "initiate and manage complex projects" when they are creating student projects.
• Assessments:  Assessments are devised which allow students to show what they have learned. Sometimes this takes the form of allowing each student to plan the way he or she will be assessed, while meeting the teacher's criteria for quality.
• Apprenticeships: Apprenticeships can allow students to "gain mastery of a valued skill gradually, with effort and discipline over time." Gardner feels that apprenticeships should take up about one-third of a student's schooling experience.
• Freedom for Learning: Teachers, school administrators, and parents can allow students to safely explore and learn in many ways, and they can help students direct their own learning. Adults can help students understand and appreciate their strengths, and identify real-world activities that will stimulate more learning.
• Innovative Teaching Methodology: Traditionally schools have emphasized the development of logical intelligence and linguistic intelligence (mainly reading and writing). While many students function well in this environment, there are those who do not. According to Gardner's theory the students will be better served by a broader vision of education, wherein teachers use different methodologies, exercises and activities to reach all students, not just those who excel at linguistic and logical intelligence.
• Awareness: An awareness of multiple intelligence theory has stimulated teachers to find more ways of helping all students in their classes.